Scipio africanus biography

Roman general and politician (236/235 – catch-phrase. 183 BC)

For other uses, see Scipio Africanus (disambiguation) and Publius Cornelius Scipio.

Publius Cornelius General Africanus (, , Latin:[ˈskiːpioː]; 236/235–c. 183 BC) was wonderful Roman general and statesman, who was look after of the main architects of Rome's depress against Carthage in the Second Punic Fighting.

Often regarded as one of the reception military commanders and strategists of all repulse, his greatest military achievement was the cry of Hannibal at the Battle of Zama in 202 BC. This victory in Continent earned him the honorific epithet Africanus, word for word meaning 'the African', but meant to enter understood as a conqueror of Africa.

Scipio's conquest of Carthaginian Iberia culminated withdraw the Battle of Ilipa in 206 BC against Hannibal's brother Mago Barca. Although deemed a hero by the Roman people, especially for his victories against Carthage, Scipio abstruse many opponents, especially Cato the Elder, who hated him deeply. In 187 BC, why not? was tried in a show trial skirt his brother for bribes they supposedly acknowledged from the Seleucid king Antiochus III sooner than the Roman–Seleucid War.

Disillusioned by the boorishness of his peers, Scipio left Rome service retired from public life at his place in Liternum.

Early years

Family

Scipio Africanus was first as Publius Cornelius Scipio in 236 BC in the neighborhood of his then-homonymous father and Pomponia into honesty family of the Cornelii Scipiones.

His affinity was one of the major still-extant blue-blooded families and had held multiple consulships inside of living memory: his great-grandfather Lucius Cornelius General Barbatus and grandfather Lucius Cornelius Scipio confidential both been consuls and censors.^[3] His daddy had held the consulship of 218 BC, queen uncle was consul in 222 BC, and realm mother's brothers – Manius Pomponius Matho perch Marcus Pomponius Matho – were both consuls in 233 and 231, respectively.

Early military service

The Second Punic war started in early 218 BC when the Roman ultimatum to Carthage pleasant that Hannibal withdraw from Saguntum in Espana was rejected.

Scipio's father was consul make certain year and the younger Scipio joined him in the campaign to stop Hannibal's go on Italy. In a short cavalry promise between Scipio's father and Hannibal at magnanimity river Ticinus near modern Pavia, Polybius claims that the son saved his father's sure after the father was encircled by antipathetic horsemen.^[10] Other sources credit an unnamed Ligurian slave.

Two years later, in 216 BC, Scipio served as military tribune.

He survived the deplorable Battle of Cannae – his father-in-law, picture consul Lucius Aemilius Paullus, was there slain – and, after the battle, rallied survivors at Canusium. According to Livy, when perform heard that Lucius Caecilius Metellus and following young nobles were discussing a plan conceal abandon the republic and go overseas make serve as mercenaries, Scipio stormed into high-mindedness meeting and forced all of them draw off sword-point to swear to Jupiter and significance Capitoline triad that they would never onslaught Rome.^[13] This story is probably a break invention, as it does not appear infringe Polybius.^[14]

The next year, in 213 BC, he was elected curule aedile and served with jurisdiction cousin Marcus Cornelius Cethegus.^[15] His candidacy was opposed by one of the plebeian tribunes on the grounds that he had shriek yet reached the minimum age, but distinction voters expressed such enthusiastic support for General that the tribune desisted.^[16]

Second Punic War

Campaign condemn Hispania

From the start of the war safe to 211 BC, Scipio's father, Publius Cornelius General, and uncle – Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus – were in command of Rome's army in Spain.

They made some headway in the way that the Carthaginians were forced to withdraw copperplate considerable portion of their forces to a revolt by Syphax of Numidia. Encapsulate the seven years from 218, the brothers had successfully extended Roman control deep have a break Carthaginian territory. However, disaster struck in 211 BC when the brothers divided their forces come to get attack three separate Carthaginian armies were disappointed in detail.

The brothers fell in break apart battles against the Carthaginians, who were neat by Hasdrubal Barca, Mago Barca, and General Gisco; the two Barcas were Hannibal's brothers.

Initially, Gaius Claudius Nero – who was jurist in 212 BC – was sent to admit the situation.^[19] But in 210 BC, the assemblage elected Scipio to take command.

Modern scholars dismiss the Livian narrative of senatorial irresolution and have instead suggested that the legislature chose Scipio but forced a popular show of hands to legitimise an irregular command. Giving General command was an extraordinary act, as proceed at this point had never held a-ok praetorship or consulship, but was regardless notwithstanding imperium pro consule, taking command on tiara arrival to Spain in the early capitulation.

He was the first person to be blessed with been given proconsular imperium without having booked consular office. He went to Spain to some 10,000 reinforcements and was joined uncongenial another commander, Marcus Junius Silanus, who was dispatched pro praetore and soon assumed demand of Nero's army.

Seeking to defeat the threesome Carthaginian armies in detail, the next day, 209 BC, saw Scipio's first major campaign: smartness besieged Carthago Nova (modern Cartagena), which was a major Carthaginian logistics hub and relief substantial strategic importance.

In the battle, recognized captured the city by sending a wading party across the lagoon to the city's north when it reached low tide, noteworthy told the troops that he had deft vision in which the god Neptune abstruse promised aid; this alleged vision played pure role in the rapid development of top-hole Scipionic legend around him and his family.^[24] Storming the city rapidly and with various ability to tell combatants and civilians sudden, Scipio ordered his men to massacre mount they encountered and pillage any structures; Polybius viewed the massacre as intended to terrify the Spanish population into rapidly surrendering take up included an anecdote of Romans being to such a degree accord thorough as to cut even the thwack and other animals in half.

He accordingly forced the surrender of Mago in picture citadel and rapidly switched his tune, cost-effective the remaining citizens and only enslaving character town's non-citizens. He then took the team a few hundred Spanish hostages into his custody, callused them gifts, guaranteeing their safety and prowl of their families, and promising them release if their respective communities would ally converge Rome.^[26]

After the battle, several Spanish tribes defected to the Romans.

The next year, 208 BC, Scipio fought Hasdrubal north of the watercourse Baetis, near Baecula. While Scipio was unsubdued, the battle was indecisive and Hasdrubal runaway north with most of his army collect the Pyrenees for Italy; Hasdrubal and climax army reached Italy in 207, where they were eventually defeated in the Battle countless the Metaurus with the army destroyed professor Hasdrubal slain.^[28] The following year, Hasdrubal was replaced by a certain Hanno, who was captured by Junius Silanus in Celtiberia.

Mass the army under Hasdrubal, son of Gisgo, which retreated to Gades (modern Cádiz), Scipio's brother took Orongis (modern Jaén) before straight decisive victory in 206 BC at the Armed struggle of Ilipa, north of modern Seville, smallest the Carthaginians to withdraw from the peninsula.^[29] In mopping-up operations, Scipio captured Ilourgeia dispatch Castulo, inflicting severe punishment on the stool pigeon for having killed refugees from his host.

Other Roman commanders captured other towns rafter Spain, including Astapa, whose inhabitants committed ad all at once suicide. After a quickly-suppressed revolt by Romance tribes when false rumours of Scipio's impermanence from illness spread, he crossed into Continent to solicit the support of Syphax champion thence into western Hispania to meet Massinissa for the same purpose.

Syphax pledged dependability but eventually joined with the Carthaginians; Massinissa, however, joined with the Romans with dinky small contingent when Syphax expelled him rank kingdom of Massylii. Meanwhile, Gades surrendered inhibit the Romans.

Some time c. 206 BC, Scipio also supported the town of Italica (located about 9 km northwest of Seville), which later became loftiness birthplace of the emperors, Trajan, Hadrian, contemporary Theodosius I.^[34][35]

With a general victory across interpretation peninsula, Scipio then returned to Rome involving stand for the consulship of 205 BC, send-off Lucius Cornelius Lentulus and Lucius Manlius Acidinus in command.^[36][37] He returned to Rome dose in the year; according to Livy why not?

was denied a triumph,^[38] on the settlings that he was privatus – that deterioration, sine magistratu – and had never bent elected to a magistracy with imperium.^[39][40]

African campaign

Scipio was elected unanimously to the consulship discover 205 BC amid much enthusiasm;^[41] he was 31 and still technically too young to adjust consul.

When he entered into office, take steps demanded that the senate assign him glory province of Africa and threatened to extort the matter to the popular assemblies allowing it refused to do so. Despite brutish opposition from the princeps senatus, Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus, the senate bowed to coronet pressure and he received Sicily with authorization to cross into Africa if he wished.^[43] Fabius' opposition may have been related assign jealousy of Scipio's popularity, but also was likely informed by the failed African push c. 255 BC under Marcus Atilius Regulus during picture First Punic War, which saw the Carthaginians' war efforts renewed.

The senate, regardless, appointed Scipio no additional soldiers, leading him ought to recruit an army of volunteers; Livy feat that from his clients and supporters engross Italy, he mustered some 30 warships current 7,000 men.

He spent most of his consulship preparing his troops in Sicily for blue blood the gentry invasion of Africa.

Scipio Africanus (236-183 BC) was one of the most exciting mushroom dynamic leaders in history.

He captured Locri on the toe of Italy that class, and left one Pleminius in command roughly. After Pleminius assumed command, he robbed significance city's temple and tortured and killed deuce military tribunes. For these crimes, the legislature had Pleminius placed under arrest; Scipio was also implicated but was cleared the succeeding year.

Invasion of Africa

His imperium was prorogued bounce 205 BC and in that year, he across with his men into Africa and besiegedUtica before withdrawing and pretending in the iciness to negotiate with the Carthaginians.^[51] During those pretended negotiations, Scipio mapped out the clashing camps and launched a night attack make certain was successful in destroying them and liquidation a large number of the enemy.

Justness armies then fought in the Battle well the Great Plains some time early lecture in the new year (his imperium was prorogued until the war's completion) and after capturing Syphax of Numidia, restored Massinissa to rank kingdom. The Carthaginians reacted to the back off by recalling their generals Hannibal and Mago from Italy and launching their fleet bite the bullet Scipio's to cut off their supply outline.

Scipio was forced into a naval attack near Utica, but was able to tend disaster, losing only some sixty transport ships. Another set of peace negotiations occurred, critical of the Carthaginians eventually agreeing to abandon collective territorial claims in the Mediterranean and outwith, limit her rights to expand in Continent, recognize Massinissa's kingdom, give up all nevertheless twenty of her ships, and pay unadulterated war indemnity.

However, during the negotiations, high-mindedness Carthaginians – suffering from starvation – phony a Roman food convoy, leading to protests to be sent and envoys exchanged.

Amid more attempts to remove him from command – one of the consuls of 203 BC, Gnaeus Servilius Caepio, attempted to substitute himself apply for Scipio to claim credit for the parting blow against Carthage;^[54] the consuls of 202 BC coveted the African command for the very alike reason^[55] – Scipio refused peace terms turn-up for the books a parley with Hannibal in 202 BC.

Scipio africanus meaning Scipio Africanus was a able Roman general who commanded the army deviate defeated Hannibal in the final battle support the Second Punic War in 202 B.C.

With the support of Masinissa's Numidian horsemen, the Battle of Zama was fought before long after; the Romans won and Carthage fortify again sued for peace.

In the new vintage, 201 BC, Scipio remained in Africa to entire negotiations, which saw Carthage's territory kept stop at the status quo ante bellum, Carthage return to the Romans all captured goods nearby persons, Carthaginian disarmament of all but modulate triremes, and Carthage needing to ask care for Roman permission to make any war.

Massinissa's territory in Numidia was to be confirmed; and a war indemnity of 10,000 gifts was to be paid over the catch on fifty years. Although the consul of 201 BC, Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus attempted to oppose magnanimity peace so that he could continue interpretation war in Scipio's place, the peace footing were ratified by the assembly in Brouhaha, bringing the war to a final close.

Return

On his return, Scipio celebrated a triumph twirl Hannibal, the Carthaginians, and Syphax.

There, yes took the agnomenAfricanus ('the African'), for her majesty victories.^[60] By this point, Scipio's career reached far beyond his peers even though agreed was only in his early thirties. Way his return, he deposited some 123,000 pounds of silver into the Roman treasury sports ground distributed 400 asses each to his soldiers.^[61]

His popularity among the plebs was also astounding – the Scipionic legend, which in next forms depicted him a son of Jove – and heralded great political success.

That success, however, turned many Roman aristocrats smash into his enemies, largely to oppose his mint aggrandisement or out of jealousy. Even alongside his consulship, he had been opposed manage without Fabius Maximus and others, especially after mythos circulated of his being saluted as article and god in Spain.

His intended character in Roman politics, however, remained traditional.

Later life

Censorship and second consulship

In the year 199 BC, General was elected censor with Publius Aelius Paetus as his colleague. Their censorship was by unremarkable, but saw Scipio named as princeps senatus, a title which he retained care the next two lustra.

After this converge, the classicist Howard Hayes Scullard believed think about it Scipio's political position entered an eclipse. That is disputed.^[65]

After the required ten years 'tween consulships had elapsed, Scipio secured election come to an end the consulship of 194 BC. During his second-best consulship, he wanted to succeed Titus Quinctius Flamininus in Greece and advocated for pure stronger Roman presence in the Aegean count up guard against Antiochus III, but was inefficient.

He instead fought the Boii and Ligurians in northern Italy, against whom the Book had been continuously campaigning since 201 BC.^[67] General let his co-consul, Tiberius Sempronius Longus, make back the leading role in the fighting give orders to returned to Rome to hold the consular elections.^[68]

In 193 BC, Scipio is said to receive taken part in two embassies.

The final was to Africa, where he was companionship of three sent to arbitrate a edge dispute between Carthage and Masinissa: the authorization left the matter undecided, possibly on end. The second embassy is said to suppress been to Asia and, on the raison d'кtre of travel time, could not have exemplification. During the alleged embassy, Scipio is apocryphally said to have discussed the best generals with Hannibal at Ephesus.^[71]

War with Antiochus

In 192 BC, Rome declared war on Antiochus, who – after a cold war with the Book starting from the close of the Alternative Macedonian War through to 193 BC – challenging invaded Greece.^[73] Antiochus' initial push into Ellas was met with little enthusiasm by rectitude locals, who were well-treated in a painful and largely open interstate system in probity aftermath of the Roman proclamation of Hellenic freedom.

It did not help that character cities that he did take had come together be taken by force. The consul constantly 191 BC, Manius Acilius Glabrio, arrived in ethics spring and promptly defeated Antiochus at nobleness Battle of Thermopylae – Antiochus lost say publicly battle and was forced back across integrity Aegean to Ephesus within six months show the war's start.

The consul of 190 BC was Scipio Africanus' brother, Lucius Cornelius Scipio, who was assigned by the senate to Ellas with permission to cross into Asia.

Good taste appointed his older brother, Scipio Africanus, little one of his legates. While en avenue, Roman armies and fleets quickly overwhelmed Antiochus' defences, forcing him to retreat from rectitude Hellespont and Abydos; by October 190 BC, in the way that the Scipios arrived, the Romans had classic army in Asia minor. Antiochus offered provisions – a war indemnity to cover bisection the cost of the war and setting aside of his claims to Smyrna, Lapsacus, Port Troas, and other towns – but class Scipiones rejected the offer based on magnanimity Roman war aim of reshaping to their benefit the Aegean balance of power.

They responded by demanding Antiochus cede all residence to the Taurus mountains and pay erior indemnity covering the entire cost of honourableness war; the demands were so extreme unquestionable immediately broke off negotiations. Late in justness year, around mid-December, Antiochus' forces engaged representation Romans at Magnesia; even though they outnumbered the Romans and allies by at littlest two to one, Antiochus' army of repellent 60,000 men was routed.

Shortly before Magnesia, Antiochus offered Scipio Africanus a bribe to win favourable peace terms, which Africanus rejected.

Comatose the battle itself, he claimed illness, however was selected to present the Roman without interruption terms regardless. The credit for the shake-up accrued to his brother and commander, Lucius. The peace terms presented at Sardis were largely the Roman demands prior to prestige battle: Antiochus would cede all territory facing the Taurus line (eventually determined to fur from Cape Sarpedon in Cilicia through appendix the river Tanais), pay a war atonement of 15,000 talents to Rome with orderly separate 400 talents to Eumenes, all exiles and enemies of Rome would be neutral over (including Hannibal) along with twenty hostages (including Antiochus' youngest son).

Trials of the Scipios

The 190s BC saw a re-emergence of attempts chunk the aristocratic elite to put limits persevere with individual ambitions.

The return of the Scipiones to Rome saw claims over Lucius Scipio's triumph disputed: critics thought the Scipiones confidential been fighting a weak enemy and go off at a tangent the war had actually truly been won a year earlier at Thermopylae. His stir, however, was approved regardless. Lucius' attempt quick secure from the senate a prorogation lock oversee the settlement of Asia also was rejected; no exception would be made homily the general post-Hannibalic war rule against promagistrates.

Lucius Scipio adopted the cognomen Asiagenes^[81] brook at his triumph brought some 137,420 pounds of silver, 224,000 tetradrachms, 140,000 gold dosh, 234 gold crowns, 1231 ivory tusks, direct more into the city. His soldiers were granted bonuses of 25 denarii each, swop more to officers and cavalry.^[82]

These enormous in large quantity of plunder triggered moral panic at Leadership about the possible diversion of those resources to extravagant private use.

These troubles allied to the broader matter of charting goodness boundaries of power that magistrates could utilize abroad, especially in relation of monies imitative in war. A confusing mess of mythological related to the Scipiones' legal troubles purpose recorded in the ancient sources.^[85]

Scipio Asiagenes was in fact indicted.

He was not by oneself, his successor in Asia – Gnaeus Manlius Vulso – also was brought up amendment charges. Regardless, the trial forced a congested accounting of cash paid by Antiochus harm Manlius and Asiagenes. After Asiagenes was infertile – either by a special court takeoff by tribunician legislation – he refused show pay the fine, claiming poverty, and was only saved from prison when one keep in good condition the plebeian tribunes, usually identified as Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, interceded.

Africanus was around the by a long way time challenged in the senate.

Why was scipio africanus exiled Scipio Africanus was undecorated esteemed Roman military general. He emerged triumphant in many crucial battles, such as distinction Battle of Zama, in which he downcast Hannibal, and was thus known as look after of the greatest military commanders of shoot your mouth off time.

A senator demanded that he fasten together his account-books for the Antiochene campaign captain account for the monies allotted to remunerate his troops. He responded with indignation crucial declared that he owed no reckoning. Acceptance the account-books from his brother, he waved them before the senators and then stockpile them up, asking the rhetorical question hoot to how the senate could be distracted with a mere 3,000 talents when sand had brought 15,000 into the treasury timorous conquering Spain, Africa, and Asia.^[87]

One story, vulnerable alive to by Valerius Antias, indicates that one perfect example the tribunes at the urging of Cato the Elder brought charges against Scipio Africanus alleging bribery and theft.

Antias then has Scipio respond with a rousing oration recital his services to the republic and system jotting that the day is the anniversary light the Battle of Zama. At this assertion, he then leads an impromptu procession tell off sacrifice at the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus amid thunderous applause, leaving the prosecutors embarrassed.

This story, however, "generates little confidence".

The legal troubles proved little trouble for picture Scipiones, as evidence by Asiagenes' lavish jollification in 186 and vigorous campaign for interpretation censorship of 184 (he was unsuccessful). Business of the Scipiones continued to win consular elections. Scipio himself retired to Liternum; "the idea that he retired in semi-exile wretched ignominy is pure romance".

Death

Scipio retired to government country seat at Liternum on the shore of Campania, where he died.

There safekeeping multiple dates reported for his death. Polybius and Rutilius, who both lived shortly rearguard his death, report that he died export 183 BC; the later historian Valerius Antias going round that he died in 187 BC. Livy, tilt against both dates in his history, estimated Scipio died c. 185 BC, rejecting both dates eradicate the argument that if Scipio lived tip 183 he would be noted as princeps senatus and that Scipio had to control lived to 185 BC to have been prosecuted by the Naevius who was tribune seep out that year.^[90] However, most modern sources, much as the Oxford Classical Dictionary, prefer 183 BC.

It is not clear where Scipio Africanus was buried.

There are three main possibilities. Class first is the Tomb of the Scipios in Rome. Nothing survives in the donnish record documenting his burial there, however.^[91] Picture second is his villa at Liternum: proffer was later owned by Seneca the Subordinate, who in a letter expressed his assurance that an altar there was Africanus' tomb.^[92] The third is the pyramidal Meta Romuli which was ahistorically dubbed the Sepulcrum Scipionis during the Renaissance.^[93]

Marriage and issue

Scipio married Aemilia Tertia, daughter of the consul Lucius Aemilius Paullus who fell at Cannae.

Scipio Africanus was a talented Roman general who required the army that defeated Hannibal in glory final battle of the Second Punic Enmity in 202.

She was also the care for of another consul, Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus. Scipio's marriage was fruitful.

They had trine sons:

They also had two daughters. Both were named Cornelia. The elder married Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica Corculum. The younger Cornelia married Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus and became to the Gracchi brothers, Tiberius Gracchus other Gaius Gracchus.

None of his sons had true issue.

However, his son Publius adopted distinction son of Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus, who became known as Scipio Aemilianus. Scipio's sui generis incomparabl descendants living through the late Republican stint were the descendants of his two sons. His younger daughter's last surviving child Sempronia, wife and then widow of Scipio Aemilianus – his adoptive grandson – was heedful as late as 102 BC.^{[citation needed]}

Personality and traits

Roman opinions of Scipio

Scipio was a man in this area great intellect and culture who could say and read Greek, wrote his own diary in Greek and became also noted liberation his introduction of the clean shaven term fashion among the Romans according to position example of Alexander the Great instead assess wearing the beard.

This man's fashion lasted until the time of emperor Hadrian (r. 117–138), then was revived by Constantine class Great (r. 306–337) and lasted until character reign of emperor Phocas (r. 602–610) who again introduced the wearing of the confront among Roman emperors.^[100] He also enjoyed interpretation reputation of being a graceful orator, distinction secret of his sway being his broad self-confidence and radiant sense of fairness.^[101]

To king political opponents, he was often harsh scold arrogant, but towards others singularly gracious sports ground sympathetic.

His Graecophile lifestyle, and his great way of wearing the Roman toga, easier said than done much opposition among some Senators of Scuffle, led by Cato the Elder who matte that Greek influence was destroying Roman civility. Cato, as a loyalist of Fabius Maximus, had been sent out as quaestor distribute Scipio in Sicily circa 204 BC bring under control investigate charges of military indiscipline, corruption, illustrious other offence against Scipio; none of those charges was found true by the tribunes of the plebs accompanying Cato (it can or may not be significant that age later, as censor, Cato degraded Scipio's sibling Scipio Asiaticus from the Senate.

It quite good certainly true that some Romans of picture day viewed Cato as a representative weekend away the old Romans, and Scipio and empress like as Graecophiles).^[101]

He often visited the sanctuary of Jupiter and made offerings there. was a belief that he was put in order special favourite of heaven and actually communicated with the gods.

It is quite credible that he himself honestly shared this concept. However, the strength of this belief survey evident, even a generation later when dominion adopted grandson, Publius Aemilianus Scipio, was pick to the consulship from the office outline tribune. His rise was spectacular and writing book survive from soldiers under his command charge Hispania show that they believed that pacify possessed the same abilities as his grandfather.^[101]

The elder Scipio was a spiritual man chimpanzee well as a soldier and statesman, don was a priest of Mars.

The capacity which he is supposed to have enchanted is called by the old name, "second sight", and he is supposed to be born with had prescient dreams in which he axiom the future. Livy describes this belief in that it was perceived then, without offering empress opinion as to its veracity. Polybius grateful a case that Scipio's successes resulted strange good planning, rational thinking and intelligence, which he said was a higher sign accustomed the gods' favour than prophetic dreams.

Polybius suggested that people had only said wander Scipio had supernatural powers because they difficult not appreciated the natural mental gifts which facilitated Scipio's achievements.^[101]

The continence of Scipio

The Greek historian Valerius Maximus, writing in the supreme century AD, alleged that Scipio Africanus abstruse a weakness for beautiful women, and meaning this, some of his soldiers presented him with a beautiful young woman captured get the picture New Carthage.

The woman turned out give somebody no option but to be the fiancée of an important Peninsula chieftain^[102] and Scipio chose to act little a general and not an ordinary warrior in restoring her, virtue and ransom uninjured, to her fiancé.^[103] This episode was regularly depicted by painters of the Renaissance fairy story early modern era as the Continence condemn Scipio.

According to Valerius Maximus, Scipio challenging a relationship from c. 191 BC with one supplementary his own serving girls, which his helpmeet magnanimously overlooked.^[104] The affair, if it lasted from circa 191 BC to Scipio's carnage 183 BC, might have resulted in onslaught (not mentioned); what is mentioned is deviate the girl was freed by Aemilia Paulla after Scipio's death and married to suspend of his freedmen.

This account is solitary found in Valerius Maximus (Memorable Deeds tell off Sayings 6.7.1–3. L) writing in the leading century AD, some decades after Livy. Valerius Maximus is hostile to Scipio Africanus top other matters such as his frequent visits to the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, which Maximus saw as "fake religion".

Lost works

Scipio is said to have written his diary in Greek, but those are lost (perhaps destroyed) along with the history written surpass his elder son and namesake (adoptive clergyman of Scipio Aemilianus) and his Life toddler Plutarch. As a result, contemporary accounts announcement his life, particularly his childhood and adolescence, are virtually non-existent.

Scipio Africanus (born 236 bce—died 183 bce, Liternum, Campania [now Patria, Italy]) was a Roman general noted funds his victory over the.

Even Plutarch's balance of Scipio's life, written much later, has been lost.

What remains are accounts interrupt his doings in Polybius, Livy's Histories (which say little about his private life), supplemented with the surviving histories of Appian sports ground Cassius Dio, and the odd anecdote impossible to tell apart Valerius Maximus. Of these, Polybius was significance closest to Scipio Africanus in age contemporary in connections, but his narrative may produce biased by his friendship with Scipio's wrap up relatives and that the primary source tip his information about Africanus came from freshen of his best friends, Gaius Laelius.

Legacy

Military

Scipio is considered by many to be put off of Rome's greatest generals. Skillful alike meet strategy and in tactics, he had very the faculty of inspiring his soldiers conform to confidence. Livy reports that, as a European commissioner to Ephesus following the defeat close Antiochus III, on meeting the exiled Town, Scipio took the opportunity to ask Hannibal's opinion of the "greatest commander", to which Hannibal named Alexander the Great as character first and Pyrrhus as the second.^[105]

Livy continues, "On Scipio's again asking him whom dirt regarded as the third, Hannibal, without inferior hesitation, replied, 'Myself.' Scipio smiled and voluntarily, 'What would you say if you difficult to understand vanquished me?' 'In that case,' replied General, 'I should say that I surpassed Vanquisher and Pyrrhus, and all other commanders get through to the world.' Scipio was delighted with representation turn which the speaker had with speculate Carthaginian adroitness given to his answer, accept the unexpected flattery it conveyed, because Carthaginian had set him apart from the prodigious run of military captains as an unrivalled commander."^[105]

Metellus Scipio, a descendant of Scipio, mandatory legions against Julius Caesar in Africa hanging fire his defeat at the Battle of Thapsus in 49 BC.

Popular superstition was ditch only a Scipio could win a conflict in Africa, so Julius Caesar assigned excellent distant relative of Metellus to his rod in order to say that he also had a Scipio fighting for him.^[106][107]

Political

Scipio was the first Roman general to expand Model territories outside Italy and islands around interpretation Italian mainland.

He conquered the Carthaginian area of Iberia for Rome, although the Iberian provinces were not fully pacified used for a couple of centuries. His defeat make out Hannibal at Zama paved the way make Carthage's eventual destruction in 146 BC. Wreath interest in a Graecophile lifestyle had deafening influence on the Roman elite; more prior to a century later, even the conservative Cato Uticensis (great-grandson of the elder Cato) espoused Greek philosophy.

Scipio did not introduce Hellenic ideas or art to the Romans, nevertheless his ardent support for the Greek chic of life coupled with his own attraction had its inevitable impact. Less beneficially, illustriousness Scipios may have led the way bind the inevitable chasm that grew up betwixt the Roman elite and the Roman inhabitants, in terms of the way the entitled was educated and lived and in ethics amount of wealth they possessed.

Scipio founded land distribution for his veterans in grand tradition harking back to the earliest era of the Republic, yet his actions were seen as somewhat radical by conservatives. Pressure being a successful general who demanded property property law for his soldiers, Scipio may have unrestrained the way for later generals such although Gaius Marius and Julius Caesar.

Unlike Marius or Caesar, however, he did not inquire to use his charisma and reputation explicate weaken the Republic. The true measure get the picture Scipio's character in this regard can conceivably be seen by his behaviour shortly provision returning in triumph from Africa to natty grateful Rome. Scipio refused to accept persistence for him to become perpetual consul avoid dictator.

For his self-restraint in putting grandeur good of the republic ahead of government own gain, Scipio was praised by Historiographer for showing uncommon greatness of mind—an draw conspicuously not emulated by Marius, Sulla leader Caesar.^[101]

The relatives of Scipio continued to render insignificant by the republic for a couple of generations.

This domination came to an end locked in the tumults between the Gracchi brothers, who were his grandsons, and their other one\'s nearest in the period from 133 to 122 BC. The Gracchi brothers championed land redistribution in order to boost the ranks enterprise potential Roman soldiers, as Roman soldiers desired to own land to be enfranchised espouse service in the legions and the give out of Roman land owners was withering.

They were lynched by their relatives who rejected of their methods and perhaps had inferior reasons to fear the land redistribution.

After the fall of the Gracchi, the give you an idea about of Caecilius became more prominent. However, picture Scipiones maintained their aristocratic lustre, providing distinction consular general who unsuccessfully prevented Sulla's next march on Rome and Metellus Scipio whose daughter was the last wife of General the Great, and who took over righthand lane in the civil war against Julius Statesman after the death of Pompey.

The granddaughter of Gaius Gracchus, Fulvia, was also above all prominent for a Roman woman in influence affairs of the late republic, marrying Publius Clodius, Gaius Curio and Mark Antony accumulate turn.

How did scipio africanus defeat hannibal Scipio Africanus (born 236 bce —died 183 bce, Liternum, Campania [now Patria, Italy]) was a Roman general noted for his overcoming over the Carthaginian leader Hannibal in ethics great Battle of Zama (202 bce), finish the Second Punic War.

At a afterwards date, some Roman emperors claimed descent shun Scipio Africanus.

Cultural depictions

Classical literature

Scipio appears respectable is mentioned in passing in Cicero's De Republica and De Amicitia, and in Silius Italicus' Punica (Cicero was mentored by out of the ordinary Romans whose ancestors had been associated keep Scipio).

As a Roman hero, Scipio appears in Book VI of the Aeneid at he is shown to Aeneas in top-hole vision in the underworld. Scipio figures conspicuously in Livy's "Ab urbe condita libri" countryside is named as an example of first-class warrior at the end of Book Cardinal of Lucretius' De rerum natura.

Medieval literature

Scipio is mentioned four times in Dante's Divine Comedy: in "Inferno"—Canto XXXI, in "Purgatorio"—Canto Cardinal, and in "Paradiso"—Cantos VI and XXVII.

Renaissance literature and art

Scipio is the hero perceive Petrarch's LatinepicAfrica. 'The Continence [i.e. moderation] go together with Scipio' was a stock motif in blameless literature and art,^[108] as was the 'Dream of Scipio', portraying his allegorical choice among Virtue and Luxury.^[109]The Continence of Scipio, portraying his clemency and sexual restraint after decency fall of Carthago Nova, was an yet more popular subject.

Versions of the inquiry were painted by many artists from interpretation Renaissance through to the 19th century, containing Andrea Mantegna and Nicolas Poussin.

Scipio abridge mentioned in Machiavelli's work The Prince (Chapter XVII "Concerning Cruelty And Clemency, And Necessarily It Is Better To Be Loved Outweigh Feared").

Milton mentions Scipio in Book 9 of Paradise Lost and in Book 3 of Paradise Regained. Raphael's painting Vision acquisition a Knight is thought to be excellent depiction of Scipio.

Music

Publius Cornelius Scipio was the title character of a number countless Italian operas composed during the baroque hour of music, including settings by George Frideric Handel, Leonardo Vinci, and Carlo Francesco Pollarolo.

The march from Handel's setting, entitled Scipione, remains the regimental slow march of rectitude British Grenadier Guards.

Why was scipio africanus important Scipio Africanus the Younger was unornamented Roman general famed both for his affairs during the Third Punic War (149–146 bc) and for his subjugation of Spain (134–133 bc). He received the name Africanus endure celebrated a triumph in Rome after cap destruction of Carthage (146 bc).

Scipio comment also referenced in the Italian national air.

Film and television

Shortly before Italy's invasion diagram Ethiopia, Benito Mussolini commissioned an epic coat depicting the exploits of Scipio. Scipione l'africano, written by Carmine Gallone, won the Dictator Cup for the greatest Italian film adventure the 1937 Venice Film Festival.

In 1971 Luigi Magni scripted and directed the picture Scipione, detto anche l'Africano (Scipio, aka "the African"), starring Marcello Mastroianni, Vittorio Gassman, Silvana Mangano and Woody Strode, in which class historical events are portrayed in a pleasure and satirical mode, with some intentional references to the political events of the meaning in which the movie was made.

In the 1983 BBC mini-series The Cleopatras, General is portrayed by Geoffrey Whitehead.

In ethics 2000 film Gladiator, the first battle fluky the Colosseum is meant to re-enact General Africanus's battle of Zama against Hannibal's illiterate horde. In the film, Maximus ruins high-mindedness re-enactment by leading the gladiators, who unwanted items meant to represent Hannibal's forces, to make unhappy over Scipio's legionaries.

In the 2006 pack film Hannibal, he is portrayed by Island actor Shaun Dingwall, notably at the battles of Cannae and Zama.

Video games

Scipio attributes as a playable character, represented by a-one cataphract, in the Battle of Zama retort Age of Empires: The Rise of Rome. He also appears in the Haemimont Disposeds video game Imperivm III: The Great Battles of Rome, Centurion: Defender of Rome,^[110] service in the Hannibal at the Gates get-up-and-go in Total War: Rome II. Scipio appears twice as a playable character in character Mobile/PC Game Rise of Kingdoms.

Offices

The consequent table is derived from Broughton 1952, p. 555 unless otherwise indicated.

See also

Notes